Assessment and Testing: Self-Directed Search Assessment Paper

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Alexandra Arpey

Chadron State College

Fundamentals of Assessment – COUN 534

Dr. Jennifer Bays

August 6, 2025

Self-Directed Search (SDS) Assessment Paper

The Self-Directed Search (SDS) is a revolutionary career assessment and vocational counseling process that has changed the way many people think about career options and choices forever. The assessment process has matured over time from a theoretical base to become one of the most popular and well-used career assessments in practice that has successfully reached millions of people from various populations and employment settings. The SDS was created in 1971 by psychologist John Holland as an applied career assessment tool using the theoretical foundation of his innovative theory of vocational choice and vocational personality (Holland, 1997). Holland's theories of vocational choice and Occupational Themes permeate career counseling research and practice and can trace their origins back to an article published in the Journal of Applied Psychology in 1958 and a second article published in 1959 that described his theory of vocational choices (John Holland's Theory of Career Choice - MBA Knowledge Base). Holland's creation used his RIASEC theoretical model, which systematically classified humans and work environments into six vocational personality types: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional (Spokane & Holland, 1995). Unlike other career assessments that existed when it was created, the SDS was designed as a self-administered, self-scored, and self-interpreted assessment tool. Currently, one of the major features of the SDS is that it is "self-paced and self-scored" and it "simulates what a practitioner and an individual may do together in a career counseling session." This means that no elaborate professional interpretation is required and offers an opportunity for career exploration that is significantly less complex compared to traditional assessment and counseling processes.

In this sense, it functions as a democratizing force in career counseling by allowing everyone to meaningfully explore their career paths without the barriers to entry of traditional career counseling. These barriers include monetary restrictions (the SDS is free in most contexts), the scarcity of career experts (many communities do not have a nearby career expert), and geographic limitations (you can complete the SDS anywhere, anytime). Additionally, the use of the SDS offers more flexibility as it can be completed "at the respondent's own time or with a career counselor for additional interpretive assistance," rather than following the traditional and directive assessment style that requires formal assessment and explanation of test results. As such, using a self-administered assessment for career self-assessment represents both a logistical and perceptual paradigm shift away from career counseling as an act of dependence upon formal professional relationships and reliance upon career experts toward a framework that facilitates an individual's self-determining role in directing their career development process.

The SDS's stated purpose is to assist with career self-assessment in a systematic fashion to understand interests, skills, and preferred work activities through evaluation (Holland & Messer, 2013). This systematic career self-assessment yields a three-letter personality code. For example, if someone has a dominant interest in the social sciences, they may receive "ESA" as their personality code, or a dominant interest in research may yield "RIA"; this three-letter code represents the user's strongest interests and provides a foundation for further career-related exploration. Holland's theory states that "personalities can be categorized, and so can occupations, using the same system. This means you can take your three-letter Summary Code to find occupations (or fields of study or leisure activities) that match your personality and are therefore likely to satisfy you" (Holland's Theory - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics). Through this process, the user identifies a range of compatible occupations, as well as academic program options, that align with their vocational personality type, providing concrete options for career planning and pursuit.

The SDS serves a variety of constituencies and fulfills multiple functions within the career development system. The SDS offers students who are deciding on academic majors or initial career choices potential career guidance, supports adults who are considering career changes or transitions, and serves as a resource for professional counselors who develop, plan, and implement vocational guidance programs and workforce development initiatives. In addition, it helps provide self-awareness of work personality and career fit, assisting users in interpreting how their interests, preferences, and competencies align with distinct career options. The assessment has sufficient depth and breadth to serve as a launching point for career exploration and planning while providing users with research-supported next steps in their vocational development and promoting active engagement in the decision-making process.

The current implementations of the Self-Directed Search demonstrate its continuing relevance and ability to support the current needs of career development services. The SDS is presently "linked to more than 1,400 occupations on the Occupational Information Network (O*NET), an online and constantly updated resource developed and maintained by the U.S. Department of Labor/Employment and Training Administration." The SDS is administered in schools, colleges, and career centers for students and career changers to identify vocational choices, while employment agencies and workforce development programs utilize the assessment to help job seekers navigate choosing their career tracks and possible futures. The SDS "requires no special training or certification for use by school counselors, career development facilitators, education specialists, and career practitioners," which adds to its accessibility and overall value. Furthermore, the SDS has continued to evolve with advances in technology, now offering online administration and interactive digital reports that simplify the process of career choice while remaining faithful to its theoretical foundation to provide effective and successful career development outcomes.

The Self-Directed Search assessment highlighted my occupational personality and career interests by indicating an ESA personality code, which represents an unusual combination of entrepreneurial characteristics, social attraction, and creative orientation. This assessment has provided me with useful clarity concerning my career experiences and validated my existing career thoughts and direction. Throughout the career assessment process defined by Whiston (2017), the mission is to provide people with useful data about their interests, abilities, and values in order to facilitate informed decision-making regarding careers. I have a personality profile that demonstrates a clear hierarchy of interests, with Enterprising as my highest type (51 out of 56). This very high level of Enterprising interest means that I have a strong inherent preference for activities that involve leadership, persuasion, and business-related activities, all of which are consistent with Holland's description of Enterprising types as having "a preference for activities which entail the manipulation of people to achieve organizational or economic objectives." The Enterprising type reflects my preference for work occupations that involve influencing, decision-making, and entrepreneurial elements.

My second highest area was Social (45 out of 56), indicating I have strong interests in helping people, teaching others, and working collaboratively with others. Holland describes the Social type as having "a preference for activities that involve the manipulation of others to inform, instruct, support, cure, or enlighten... and these behaviors in turn lead to some degree of development of competencies in human relations." Along the Artistic dimension, I received a score of 42 on the scale of 56, which demonstrates that I have an interest in creative expression and artistic activities. This finding aligns with my preferences for originality, creativity, and having the ability to express myself through my work. My less preferred dimensions—Conventional (39), Investigative (14), and Realistic (12)—suggest that environments with structured procedures, research focus, or hands-on technical nature would be much less consonant with my natural preferences and interests.

There is ample theoretical rationale for my results, and substantial evidence supports the reliability of the SDS summary scales. The internal consistency coefficients (Cronbach's alpha) for the summary scales were .90 to .94, and the test-retest reliability coefficients were .76 to .89, demonstrating psychometric viability (Dozier et al., 2013). The SDS is "backed by a mountain of research studies (over 500)" and is "an inventory whose psychometric properties are well-conceived and documented," which gives me confidence in the credibility of my results. Holland's RIASEC theoretical model is widely known and extensively used in career planning, having been adopted by "a number of professional organizations and training institutes," which supports the credibility of the theoretical foundation of my assessment. The assessment, combined with my reflection on my education and work experiences, served to reveal some essential career strengths that help establish my vocational identity. Fundamental to my identity, I discovered leadership potential, interpersonal skills, and creative tendencies that differentiate me from others in the vocational field. I see myself as someone who gravitates toward positions that allow me to lead and influence others, interact and communicate effectively, and utilize my creativity.

My occupational interest in work environments that are dynamic and involve people will generally outweigh my interests in more structured or technical occupations. My career interests particularly intersect with occupations that utilize business, creative, or helping frameworks, suggesting I am suited to occupations that allow for an entrepreneurial approach to benefiting others. Holland's Theory of Career Choice aligns well with this interpretation when he states that "choosing a work environment or educational program that is consistent with, or closely related to, your own personality is likely to provide you with the greatest chance of success and satisfaction." The SDS results categorized and identified many clusters of occupations consistent with the ESA profile across multiple employment sectors. In the Arts and Entertainment category, potential matches included actors, art directors, talent agents and business managers, choreographers, and film/video editors, in which I could combine my creative interests with my business and social orientations. There were matches for careers in the Education field such as teachers at different levels, instructional coordinators, and self-enrichment teachers. I appreciate that Education careers would allow me to help others while using my leadership and communication skills. The Business and Management fields showed matches in careers such as meeting and event planners, entertainment managers, and various public relations roles; these Business and Management matches would allow me to use my entrepreneurial abilities and interpersonal skills. The Human Services career matches included mental health and substance abuse counselors and social workers, which include opportunities to make a meaningful impact in people's lives. Additionally, there are work opportunities within the Communication field, such as interpreters/translators, editors, and public relations specialists; these roles also fit my social skills and creative expression while allowing me to influence and take charge.

The educational pathways for the mentioned career matches indicate that these are all professional fields with specific academic requirements. Most of the career matches required professional degrees and extensive academic preparation. The majority of my career matches require a college degree or advanced degree, and I recognize that I will need to pursue higher education to some degree in my career. I was pleased to learn that there are some entry-level professions that only require a high school diploma/GED or just a couple of years of college education, which means I can utilize my existing college credits to enter and progress in a career. I was even more encouraged to see that many of my matched occupations had indicators of growth that suggest good employment prospects and expanding opportunities in these fields, which is promising for job security and long-term career progression.

Nothing was more validating than finding a high level of congruence between my results and my career goals. The career daydreams I provided were assigned a SEA code that closely matches my ESA assessment results, which gives me confidence that I have been consistent in my vocational personality across three modes of assessment: career daydreams, ESA assessment, and career interest measures. This is critically important because, as Whiston (2017) has pointed out, the closer the relationship between expressed interests and measured career interests, the greater the probability that the vocational interests will lead to increased job satisfaction, persistence, and other positive outcomes. My expressed interests in the careers of counseling, mental health, and human resources supported my emerging view that my career daydreams were justified career aspirations that aligned with my assessed vocational personality type. The research suggests that "persons' expressed interests may be equally as predictive of future occupational activity as their assessed interests," and the convergence between my career aspirations and assessment results gives me confidence that there will be favorable predictive validity for my future career outcomes.

The convergence of these aspirations paired with my assessment results gives me confidence that I am exploring career pathways that are closely aligned with my genuine interests and natural strengths, which points to a likelihood of finding career satisfaction and success in my chosen field of employment. The results of my SDS, together with the studies supporting Holland's RIASEC theory, leave me well-grounded in the processes of career planning and decision-making as I move forward. Completing the Self-Directed Search assessment has given me tremendous understanding of my career type and direction, providing me with a framework for considering my career preferences and possibilities. The reflective process involved in the Self-Directed Search has enhanced my self-awareness in many areas and identified important components of my career development experience. Whiston (2017) indicates that it is critical to note that the importance of career assessment is not necessarily the scores themselves, but rather the important self-reflection and insights developed throughout the assessment process.

Through this assessment experience, I now have great clarity regarding my primary work preferences and motivational drives. Most significantly, I have confirmed that I clearly prefer leadership and entrepreneurial roles, given that my highest score was Enterprising (51/56). With an Enterprising orientation, I feel confident that my instincts to take on leadership, to influence others to achieve objectives, and to accomplish organizational or business goals align with Holland's (1997) depiction of Enterprising types as "individuals who manipulate others to help realize organizational objectives or economic gain." Additionally, my Social orientation score of 45/56 has confirmed for me that I am truly energized by helping and working with people. This assessment supports my professional belief that interpersonal interactions are paramount to my professional satisfaction. Research (Holland, 1997, p.17) states that Social types have "a preference for activities that involve the manipulation of others to inform, train, develop, cure, or enlighten... these styles imply developing and acquiring human relations competencies."

The Artistic area of my profile, which scored 42 out of 56, illuminated my strong need for creative expression and authenticity in the work environment, thus providing better insight into my discomfort in overly structured or repetitive work contexts. In a way, it also validated that I prefer dynamic, personable contexts over technical or routine work environments, forming a clearer understanding of the types of organizational cultures best suited for me to flourish and contribute. The results of the assessment provided an unprecedented level of clarity around my career direction and professional identity. My ESA profile shows that I excel in roles that combine business leadership, people interaction, and creativity, and this clearly gives me a distinct occupational niche relative to those who excel in only one of these three components. Holland's theory indicates that "individuals who choose to work in environments similar to that of their personality type are more likely to be successful and satisfied in their career life," and this gives me confidence in pursuing occupations congruent with my ESA profile. I have learned that I am well suited to jobs that include influencing, communicating, or incorporating artistic/humanitarian components, which explains why I am drawn to employment that embodies some combination of these competencies.

One of the most validating discoveries through the assessment was the clear congruence between my career dreams and my expressed interests, giving me confidence that my hopes are grounded in genuine preferences rather than external value statements and unrealistic expectations. Research indicates that "persons' stated interests may be equally predictive of future occupational engagement as are their assessed interests," so the fact that my stated career directions are aligned with my assessment results is promising for future occupational achievement. I have also gained insight into the various growth-oriented career choices available to me across a variety of industries, which alleviates some anxiety regarding limited career options and opens many doors for career development and advancement. The assessment has allowed me to better articulate preferences I have regarding my ideal work environment that I previously understood only implicitly. I have learned that I likely prefer collaborative, expressive work environments over solitary, structure-bound situations, and this helps me understand my dissatisfaction in previous jobs that emphasized individual work or adherence to strict procedures.

My results clarified that job roles providing opportunities for leadership and interaction with people are strong and important motivators for me, and this suggests that any job role that does not include these motivational components would produce dissatisfaction regardless of other significant and appealing features of the role. I also discovered that creative flexibility and an opportunity to make a meaningful difference in the lives of other people are very significant motivators for me, which suggests that even jobs that are otherwise engaging will be unsatisfactory when my tasks focus primarily on profit and efficiency without any service delivery component. Ultimately, I have discovered that I may be most satisfied in positions that offer opportunities for creativity or innovation as well as social connectedness, responsibly combining my entrepreneurial instincts with my belief in making human connections and being supportive to others. This resonates with research on person-environment fit theory that states, "choosing work—and education program—environments that are congruent, or similar to your personality, most likely will lead to success and satisfaction."

In light of this awareness, I can identify several clear paths for my career development that are consistent with my assessed personality profile. I need to focus on careers that would merge my entrepreneurial drive with my wish to improve the well-being of others, as opposed to pursuing a career that is either purely business-focused or primarily service-oriented, both of which would limit my vocational personality. More specifically, I should consider careers in education, arts management, leadership, or human services administration because they encompass leadership development with human connection and creative expression. I will actively seek opportunities that integrate business skills with creative or counseling opportunities, possibly through additional coursework, internships, or volunteer experience that consider blended pathways for careers in business and human-focused fields. My Holland Code assessments suggest I have strong potential in careers that pertain to advanced education and leadership development, which suggests that pursuing graduate education would be personally satisfying as well as strategically advantageous to maximize career potential. Research has demonstrated that Holland Career Interest Codes "help people make informed decisions for career change and development" and are used to "explore career options that are aligned with their interests and make development plans accordingly."

This thorough self-assessment has also confirmed many of my career intuitions and has given me a more systematic way to make decisions about my future career. Having gained self-awareness during this self-assessment process, I have found value in working toward my professional identity and intentionally engaging in opportunities that are aligned with my deeper vocational identity and personality. Whiston (2017) asserts that ultimately, effective career assessment leads to increased self-awareness and more evidence-based decisions regarding career development, which I have experienced during this reflective and intentional process.

The Self-Directed Search is a versatile and evidence-based tool that can be applied in my future career counseling practice for improved client outcomes and client career fulfillment. As a prospective counselor and current master's student, I can see utilizing the SDS at multiple levels of the therapeutic process, from the initial level of career assessment to the ongoing level of helping clients achieve desired career outcomes. In this way, the SDS can clarify potential jobs and careers with higher career clarity and satisfaction for the client. The breadth and depth of this career assessment tool, with its solid research foundation, offers a comprehensive framework for contemporary career counseling practice.

With respect to clients working through the beginning stages of career exploration, I would be able to introduce the SDS as their first assessment tool to help clients achieve an understanding of their vocational personality type and then begin systematically exploring possibilities for developing their careers. Dozier et al. (2019) found in their research that the SDS has a highly positive influence for clients who are low in career decision state with high career indecision, high career dissatisfaction, and low career clarity. The SDS also has a unique quality in "simulating what a client and practitioner might do in a career counseling session" by examining preferred activities and occupations, competencies and abilities, and utilizing the RIASEC theory as a framework for career progression (Dozier et al., 2013). I will be able to collect comprehensive data on each client's career personality because of this SDS simulation quality, while at the same time providing clients a way to make sense of their workplace interests and plausible careers in context. Because the SDS utilizes a structured approach, clients who might otherwise be overwhelmed by career possibilities will have an opportunity to clarify their thinking about their career path and approach their career research through a structured process in a less overwhelming and anxious manner.

The SDS can be provided as a counselor-free intervention to mature clients with high career readiness who prefer self-exploration and can be integrated into their ongoing self-directed career development. Research supports that utilizing the SDS as a counselor-free intervention can produce an increase in a user's career exploratory behavior and assists users in seeing a broader inventory of career options to consider for further investigation (Bullock-Yowell et al., 2011). This also provides the user an opportunity to complete the SDS between sessions with the freedom to gather a wealth of information without using valuable session time for career development activities, allowing individuals to process information and develop insight into the SDS while carefully considering their career exploration process. The self-directed quality of the SDS assessment gives clients the opportunity to take ownership of their exploration process in relation to career options while still providing a scientifically valid and reliable assessment they may consider in our subsequent counseling discussions. This may be extremely helpful for a client who prefers to facilitate their own change or if a client engages in counseling on a periodic basis due to financial, geographic, or time constraints.

When the SDS results are placed into the broader context of the counseling process, meaningful therapeutic work with respect to career development can take place. I expect that SDS results can provide the necessary groundwork for meaningful counseling discussions specific to career aspirations, motivations, and the challenges that emerge throughout the assessment process. The richness of detail available in the SDS results will allow me to initiate conversations about clients' career aspirations, motivations, and challenges, and help them set realistic, achievable goals anchored to their identified vocational personality type. The assessment provides appropriate objective data to ground our conversations around personality-environment fit and satisfaction, thus providing a foundation to adequately unpack subjective career experiences and concerns. Incorporating the SDS results into counseling conversations will ensure that discussions remain anchored in supported career theory while remaining responsive to the client's specific needs and experiences. The RIASEC codes and job matches provide a more tangible method of engaging clients who struggle with abstract self-reflection to more concretely engage in the process of career development.

By anchoring my work with clients in the SDS assessment, one of the most important impacts will be to improve clients' career decision-making self-efficacy and confidence. Research shows that the SDS can have positive impacts on clients' career decision-making self-efficacy and confidence. There is evidence that, regardless of students' initial decision state, the vast majority of students are positive and engaged by the opportunity to explore their interests using the SDS, stating that this is a positive experience and that the assessment process has therapeutic and empowering potential (Dozier et al., 2019). I will be able to use this evidence to assist in building clients' confidence in making informed decisions regarding their career development—their SDS results provide concrete evidence of their strengths, preferences, and potential career pathways. The methodical nature of the assessment process provides clients with structure, particularly clients who already feel overwhelmed by career options, which may allow them to better approach the assessment process and the development plan that will result. This will be especially useful for clients who have not been successful in navigating their career path and/or have trouble with decision-making and self-doubt regarding their career development.

The longitudinal aspect of the SDS also allows me to use the assessment across one or multiple counseling engagements. I will be able to use the SDS in a process of continued career counseling by interpreting their codes, exploring occupational category information, and formulating action plans that encourage clients to take steps toward their identified career goals. The comprehensive occupational resource database associated with each unique RIASEC code provides tremendous flexibility for clients to continue to explore or revise their career pursuits throughout their formal meetings and engagements with me. In many instances, I may use SDS results to open up possibilities for clients when directing them to additional resources and approaches to consider for exploring their individual options and planning for their future career goals—things such as educational planning, skills development, and networking strategies. The longitudinal nature of the SDS results allows clients to repeatedly access their assessment information during their career development process and provides potentially valuable resources for career development even after the formal counseling relationship has ended.

In conclusion, the versatility of the Self-Directed Search, and the evidence that supports it, makes it quite useful in a career counseling practice. It serves a wide variety of needs from initial identification to supporting ongoing processes when clients are moving through their career path toward their career goals. The strong psychometric and theoretical basis for the SDS offers unlimited opportunities for client participation in an evidence-based career intervention process. I intend to effectively integrate the SDS into practice in the future, which will increase clients' immediate sense of their future career potential while also providing them developmental, longitudinal resources to continue building understanding and developing their career-related growth, as well as informed decision-making and satisfaction toward their career throughout their professional lifespan.

References

Bullock-Yowell, E., Peterson, G., Wright, L., Reardon, R., & Mohn, R. (2011). The Contribution of Self-Efficacy in Assessing Interests Using the Self-Directed Search. Journal of Counseling and Development, 89(4), 470-478.  https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2011.tb02844.x

Dozier, V., Osborn, D. S., Kronholz, J., Peterson, G. W., & Reardon, R. C. (2019). The Effects of the Online Self-Directed Search on the Career Decision State. Canadian Journal of Career Development, 18(2), 48-62.

Dozier, V. C., Sampson, J. P., Jr., & Reardon, R. C. (2013). Using Two Different Self-Directed Search (SDS) Interpretive Materials: Implications for Career Assessment. The Professional Counselor, 3(2), 67-72.

Holland, J. L. (1997). Making Vocational Choices: A Theory of Vocational Personalities and Work Environments (3rd ed.). Psychological Assessment Resources.

Holland, J. L., & Messer, M. A. (2013). Self-Directed Search® 2013 Fifth Edition (SDS)® Professional Manual. Psychological Assessment Resources.

Spokane, A. R., & Holland, J. L. (1995). The Self-Directed Search: A Family of Self-Guided Career Interventions. Journal of Career Assessment, 3(4), 373-390.  https://doi.org/10.1177/106907279500300409

Whiston, S. C. (2017). Principles and Applications of Assessment in Counseling (5th ed.). Cengage Learning.